The Historical Changes in Chengde’s Transportation and Its Impact on Urban Development

: Transportation has played an indispensable role in driving urban development from ancient times to the present. This paper aims to explore the historical evolution of transportation in Chengde and examine the influence of transportation factors on the city's functions from different perspectives. The research reveals that Chengde's urban development has undergone four stages: natural villages before the Liao Dynasty, urban construction from the Liao Dynasty to the Ming Dynasty, urban development from the early to middle Qing Dynasty, and the present era after the reform and opening-up. The study results demonstrate that Chengde's transportation development has undergone significant transformations. It has not only provided essential support for various aspects such as politics, religion, culture, economy, and military during the Qing Dynasty, but also served as a vital guarantee for modern economic development, tourism, arts, and environmental protection.


Introduction: The Impact of Transportation on Urban Development
With the advancement of technology, urban construction and planning have received increasing attention.Ma Jiwu proposed four perspectives, namely the institutional determinism of "ritual-law," the conceptual guidance of "environment-practicality," the cosmic vision of "resembling heavenfollowing earth," and the natural environment theory of "harmony between heaven and humans."He pointed out that urban construction and planning are influenced by both the natural environment and social environment of cities.The core concept of "environment-practicality" emphasizes that urban development must align with the current geographical features, climate, and other practical conditions.The book "Guanzi" also states that targeted measures should be taken based on the current situation to achieve optimal development.Xing Zhong et al. indicated that the core-periphery structure of the Hanshui River Basin underwent significant changes with the advancement of the Industrial Revolution, including the geographical position of central cities, economic activities, and population migration.They pointed out that before the Industrial Revolution, water transportation was a crucial means of transportation, turning river systems into the main driving force behind urban development and determining the overall spatial layout of cities.After the Industrial Revolution, with technological advancements, the use and convenience of water transportation improved, making river systems a crucial factor in shaping the overall spatial layout of cities.With technological progress, traditional water transportation has ceased to exist, replaced by advanced highway and high-speed railway systems, making road transportation a key factor influencing cities. Su Yude delved into how road transportation in Taipei improved the city's external structure.He noted that as a city develops, the external structure expands from a block-like point, gradually filling the internal space, ultimately developing into larger saturated blocks that continue to expand and fill.[1] 2. Changes in Chengde's Transportation

Pre-Liao Dynasty Chengde
Over 4,000 years ago, Chengde served as a hub for cultural exchanges between the Central Plains and various ethnic groups in the north.It not only connected with the Central Plains but also with Inner Mongolia, giving birth to the concept of "roads" in Chengde.Numerous coarse pottery, scraping tools, and other stone artifacts similar to the Longshan and Yangshao cultures discovered in Fengning County and Weichang County indicate the social environment and local historical development of Chengde in ancient times.In the Pingquan, Longhua, and Luanping counties in the Luan River Basin, a significant number of cord-marked gray pottery fragments and pottery have been excavated, which have a longer cultural history than the Hongshan culture and exhibit characteristics closer to the Longshan culture, highlighting the characteristics of the northern grassland area.[2] Therefore, the culture of the Central Plains region in Chengde spread from the Liao River Basin in Chaoyang, Liaoning Province, to the Xilamulun River Basin in Chifeng and further to places like Kuancheng and Beijing, forming an ancient transportation network at that time.The existence of export routes in Chengde may have facilitated local communication.
During the late Qin and early Han dynasties, Chengde faced aggression from the Xiongnu.Dozens of ancient towns and villages emerged as important transportation hubs, with Xiongnu troops frequently traversing the ancient roads of Chengde.In 119 AD, the "Sai Di" was established to resist the invasion of the Xiongnu.The "History of the Han Dynasty" mentions, "In the reign of Emperor Xiaowu, troops were sent to expel and seize this land, expanding north of the curtain, establishing a border payment station, constructing watchtowers and beacon towers, and building the Great Wall, with garrisons stationed to defend it."This indicates that road transportation in the Chengde area was highly developed during that time, as described in the phrase "morning departure from the Celestial Palace, evening arrival at city walls, that is the place."During the Qin and Han periods, the Lulong Pass (via Xifengkou) and the Pinggang Ancient Road (via Gubeikou) were already established, connecting China's regions with the northeastern and northern borders.[3] In the early period of the Northern and Southern Dynasties, the Lulong Pass and Pinggang Ancient Road remained convenient transportation routes.
During the Sui and Tang dynasties, Chengde was located in the central area of Hebei, Liaodong, and Yanshan, serving as an important military fortress and trading center in the north.The primary means of transportation at the time were by land and water.On land, Chengde, being centrally located, was one of the crucial passages connecting the north and south.The Yazi River Canal, which connected Chengde to Henan, was excavated as early as the 20th year of Jian'an in the Eastern Han Dynasty (215 AD).In the Tang Dynasty, Chengde became a royal post station, and postal roads connected it with places like Youzhou and Jinyang.Additionally, there were multiple ancient trade routes and post roads within the jurisdiction of Chengde.For example, there was a north-south post road near the Yudao Mountains and an east-west post road from Niangniang Temple to Tianlong Mountain, Ximenzi, and Songshan areas.On water, Chengde was situated at the confluence of the Yingzhou River and the Luan River, providing access to the Bohai Bay through the Yingzhou River.It served as a crucial water transportation route from the north to the East Sea and the south.During the Tang and Song dynasties, water transportation in Chengde was also highly developed, connecting with the capital, Youzhou, Liaodong, and other places through waterways such as the Yingzhou River and the Luan River.

Chengde from the Liao Dynasty to the Ming Dynasty
During the Liao Dynasty to the Ming Dynasty, transportation in Chengde gradually developed and improved.It can mainly be discussed in two ways: land transportation and waterway transportation.

Land Transportation
In the Liao Dynasty, Chengde became the main road of communication between the south and the north due to its location in the center and its harsh terrain.With the southward movement of the imperial court and the nobles, Chengde's traffic position became more and more important.During the Liao Dynasty, the south and north roads converged in Chengde and became the main points of the north-south thoroughfare.The southbound Post Road from Tokyo (now Beijing), through Shanhaiguan to Liaoning, Jilin and other places; The North travel route starts from Datong and Xinzhou and enters Chengde through Zhenwu Pass and Shizuishan.The North-South route was one of the important political, military and cultural routes at that time, which had a profound impact on Chinese history.
By the Yuan Dynasty, the traffic in Chengde was more prosperous.In the Yuan Dynasty, Chengde became the site of the Imperial Mongolian Garden (later renamed the Summer Resort), which opened Chengde to the whole country and gradually developed traffic.During the Yuan Dynasty, the imperial post station was located in Chengde, and the post road reached all parts of the country.In the early Ming Dynasty, there were many official roads connecting Chengde and the capital (Beijing), such as the Zhengjie Road from Chengde to the capital and the Beicheng Post Road.

Waterway Transportation
In the Liao, Jin and Yuan dynasties, Chengde was located at the confluence of Yingzhou River and Luanhe River and became an important canal hub.Among them, Yingzhou River is one of the important rivers in the Yellow Sea basin, and has been known as "the first river in the world" since ancient times.In the Yuan Dynasty, the emperor built a large number of water conservancy projects in Chengde, strengthened the control of water resources, and improved the efficiency of water transportation.
As for the Ming Dynasty, the shipping of Yingzhou River was more prosperous, and facilities such as Bridges and docks along the coast were also vigorously developed.In addition, the Ming Dynasty also built a north-south waterway communication line with Yongding River, Haihe River and Yingzhou River as the main body, which started from Beijing and entered the Bohai Bay through Yingzhou River, connecting Shandong and Liaoning and other places, becoming one of the most important waterway communication lines in the Ming Dynasty.

Transport in Early and Mid-Qing Dynasty Chengde
During the prosperous period of Chengde in the Qing Dynasty, transportation became more developed and diversified, including land transportation, water transportation, and other modes of transportation.

Land Transportation
Chengde remained an important transportation hub in northern China during the Qing Dynasty.The journey from Beijing to Chengde was convenient, and travelers could use various means of transportation such as horse-drawn carriages and sedan chairs, taking only a few hours.Furthermore, the Qing Dynasty made significant investments in the repair and expansion of the Yungang Post Road and Shanxi Post Road, promoting trade and cultural exchanges between regions.The imperial routes between Chengde and Beijing were distinctively luxurious.The "Imperial Road," "Official Horse Road," and "Southern Journey" were the three official roads of the Qing Dynasty.Starting from the capital city, they traversed Hebei Province, connecting the capital, Inner Mongolia, and the Northeast region, forming a complete official road system.Chengde served as the core of these three official roads, creating a road network that linked the capital, Inner Mongolia, and the Northeast region.The imperial family of the Qing Dynasty regularly traveled, and these imperial officials would visit Chengde, forming a complete official road system.According to "Jingcheng Imperial Road," Chengde was visited by more than 100 emperors during the over 200 years of Qing rule.The Qing emperors made special efforts to renovate the 40-kilometer road between the Bishu Mountain Resort and Tangtougou Gate, transforming Chengde into a city with abundant tourist resources.In 1790, the members of the Marquis of Macartney's mission, including Hugh Elliott, conducted comprehensive maintenance of the imperial road from Beijing to Rehe, with a total length of 418 li.Located at the center of the major transportation artery, the road was 10 feet wide and 1 foot deep, made of mixed sand, stones, and cement.It underwent two comprehensive maintenance projects every year.Due to the humid climate and stable soil structure, the road was as solid and durable as cement.Its surface was as clean as a community hall, orderly and free of any debris.Whenever someone entered, it would be cleaned thoroughly without any dust.On this street, there was a huge water reservoir with a spacing of approximately 200 meters, storing a large amount of clean water.When the emperor passed through Chengde, its beautiful scenery was breathtaking, as if there was no place more enchanting in the world.With increased economic and cultural exchanges and military demands, Chengde's development received significant impetus.[3]

Water Transportation
During the Qing Dynasty, Chengde became an important hub for north-south water transportation with the opening of the Grand Canal.Many wharves, canals, and shipyards were built within Chengde, facilitating various forms of water transport operations.Additionally, due to its location in the Luan River basin, Chengde had a network of waterways where many folk watercraft were widely used.The Chengde Prefectural Annals of the Qing Dynasty mentioned that the grass market ferry crossing on the Luan River was three li in width, narrow but about one li long.Every October, villagers would weave fences, form circular openings with stones, and lay massive logs on top, covering them with straw and compacting with soil to ensure the safety of water sources.Emperors such as Kangxi, Qianlong, Daoguang, and Guangxu invested heavily in building embankments and wharves to facilitate river passage during the spring and autumn rainy seasons.The Chengde Prefectural Annals records that in the tenth year of the Jiaqing reign, in order to prevent officials from abusing tax payments, Emperor Jiaqing specifically allocated funds to purchase two ferry boats, and stone carvings were made daily to mark the eastern and western ends of the river channel, allowing visitors to easily pass through.Until the early 20th century, the grass market ferry crossing remained a prosperous ferry and wharf.However, in 1935, the puppet state of Manchukuo built the wooden Chengde Highway Bridge, which led to the cessation of operations of the ferries and wharves between the east and west banks.[3]

Other Modes of Transportation
During the Qing Dynasty, tourism, commercial trade, and cultural exchanges thrived in Chengde.To meet these demands, many post stations, inns, and markets were established, and a large number of pedestrian streets and transfer points were built around the city walls.The establishment of these facilities not only promoted exchanges between regions but also made Chengde an important commercial center.Additionally, several railway lines were built during the Qing Dynasty, such as the Yingchang Railway, injecting new vitality into Chengde's development.

Chengde from Reform and Opening Up to the Present
Since the reform and opening up period until the present, road, railway, and aviation transportation have experienced rapid development:

Road Transportation
Chengde, located in the Beijing-Tianjin region, is surrounded by national highways 101, 111, and 112, allowing tourists to easily reach destinations such as Chifeng, Liaoning, Zhangjiakou, Beijing, and Tianjin.By taking the Beijing-Chengde Expressway, it only takes a two-hour drive to reach these places.The "One Ring, Nine Arrows" expressway is an important part of our construction efforts.It connects Beijing, Tianjin, Liaoning, Inner Mongolia, and ports, serving as a vital transportation route between the two regions and an important coal transportation route connecting the east and west.This well-developed transportation system will better meet the local travel needs.The Chengde Long-Distance Bus Station (East Bus Station) not only provides intercity express buses to Beijing and Tianjin but also offers long-distance buses twice daily to meet the local residents' travel needs.By 2022, the total number of bus departures in Chengde will exceed 3.537 million, the total distance covered by buses will exceed 35,512.0 million kilometers, the total passenger volume will exceed 37.537 million tons, and the total cargo volume will reach 1,095,047.3 million tons.Throughout the year, 1,407.5 kilometers of roads at various levels were constructed, with an investment of 9.73 billion yuan.Among them, 12 sections totaling 299 kilometers of new and extended trunk roads were built, with 44.1 kilometers completed and opened to traffic.Rural roads were newly constructed or reconstructed over 1,363.4kilometers, and 221 kilometers of beautiful rural roads were completed.Through technological advancements, the technical condition index (MQI) of the trunk roads has improved to 93.1, far exceeding the national average.Furthermore, within a 30-kilometer county area, the utilization rate of buses has reached 100%, and 55.3% of townships have achieved public accessibility to buses.Shuangluan District was awarded the honor of "Model County for Good Rural Roads" in the People's Republic of China.The Jiuhua Mountain Bridge was completed and opened to traffic.Small passenger vehicles are allowed to travel toll-free on the bypass expressway.200 new and updated energy-efficient buses were added, with 92.3% of the city's buses being new energy and clean energy buses, successfully being listed as a model city for green freight and distribution projects nationwide.
The main train stations include East Station, South Station, North Station, and Shangbancheng Station.

Aviation Transportation
On November 10, 2013, the Chengde Puning Terminal Building completed its construction, and on February 23, 2017, it achieved its first airspace takeoff and landing.On March 31, the Puning Terminal Building finally achieved its first civil airspace takeoff and landing.The Puning Terminal Building has operated 12 flights covering 14 cities, and in 2019, three more routes were added, with an annual total of 424,000 passengers transported.Chengde Airport is an international airport covering 230.7553 hectares, located in Xiaoliang Town, Chengde County, 19.5 kilometers from the city.It has access via the Chengchao Expressway near the airport.The flight area of the terminal building is classified as 4C, with a 2,800-meter runway, five terminal waiting halls, a total of 4,996.1 square meters of terminal halls, 7,278 square meters of terminal halls, 1,785.3square meters of terminal halls, one control tower, and an additional 816.38 square meters of terminal halls.In addition, there are supporting facilities such as communication, navigation, meteorology, power supply, water supply, fuel, heating, and fire and rescue.It can accommodate different aircraft, ranging from CRJ200 to B737/-300/-700/-800, and even A319/320, fully meeting the requirements of most Chinese civil aircraft in terms of performance and efficiency.

Transportation Infrastructure and the Development of Chengde: A Case Study of the Construction of Post Roads Leading to Mongolia during the Qing Dynasty
Post roads, also known as relay routes, are an important means of transportation that fulfill the political, military, and economic needs of a country.They serve to convey central government directives to various regions, facilitate official communication, and transport goods (similar to present-day national highways).During the early Qing Dynasty, the government attached great importance to the construction of post roads in order to strengthen the connection between Mongolia and the mainland.With the growing significance of Chengde's geographical location, especially with the establishment of the Mulan Autumn Hunting, it became an important passage linking the Qing government with Inner Mongolia.In light of this, the Qing government established four post roads leading to Mongolia in this area.Initially, as military demands increased, the management of relay stations and post roads gradually shifted from the Ministry of War to the Lifanyuan (the Qing administration responsible for Mongolian and Tibetan affairs).During times of war, these post roads were used to mobilize troops, transport provisions, and conduct military expeditions.During peacetime, they facilitated trade, exchanges, and diplomatic relations, as well as facilitated transportation for goods, tea, horses, and marriages.During the prosperous Kangxi and Qianlong eras, ministers and envoys from Korea, Burma, Nanan, and Japan traveled along these routes, either from north to south or vice versa, to diligently meet the Qing emperors in Chengde.Mongolian nobles who traveled to Beijing for court audiences and officials dispatched by the court to deliver official documents also traveled along these post roads.The establishment of the post roads formed a relatively balanced and rational transportation network within Chengde and Inner Mongolia.
Specifically, there were four important post roads with distinct functions and influences: It is worth noting that along the post roads, new settlements or villages continued to emerge, and some of these villages gradually developed into towns of certain scale, such as Duolunuo'er, Bagou, Rehe, Tazigou, Wulanhaoda, Bukui, and Moergen.

Qing Dynasty Period
There is no textual documentation available on the urban planning of Chengde Prefecture during the Qing Dynasty.Based on research and verification, the recognized city boundaries extended from Wulie Road Qingba in the east to Dongshan Banpo in the west, from the Headway Archway in the northwest to Cuiqiao in the south, and to the palace walls in the north.There was no clear division between the residences of the royal household and those of the common people.The bustling commercial areas were located in West Street, the grain market, the horse market, the Fire God Temple, Taiping Bridge, Erxianju, Nanyingzi, and other areas.[4]

Modern Era and Future Prospects
Urban Planning of Chengde Metropolitan Area: 1. Spatial Structure: "One core, three vice, two belts, two zones" is a description of the spatial structure of the towns.It includes the urban area, Yingzi district, Chengde County town, Luanping County town, as well as Zhangbaiwan, Liugou, and other areas.The geographical locations of these towns determine their economic characteristics.

Construction Scale:
By 2030, the total population of the planned metropolitan area will reach 2.345 million, and the construction land area will reach 264 square kilometers, representing a significant development target.
Overall Layout of the Central City: 1. Urban Scale: By 2030, the central city area will have a population of over 1.2 million residents, occupying more than 130 square kilometers of construction land, with each resident having a construction land area of 104.8 square meters.
2. Spatial Structure: The "two belts and six clusters" is an important urban planning framework that connects the urban areas of the Wulie River basin with those of the Luan River basin and divides the city into six clusters: the old city area, the west area, the oasis, the northern new city, the south area, and Shangbancheng.
3. Functional Layout: Starting from Shang'erdao River and extending to Wulie River Bridge, and from the Qinchui Peak watershed to the Guangrenling watershed, the 14.93 square kilometer old city area will be developed into a comprehensive scenic spot with unique landscapes and rich culture.
The western block covers a total area of 40.45 square kilometers, extending from Binggoumen to the Guangrenling watershed and further extending from the Lanzhan Tunnel on the Xidi Township 112 line.It aims to develop traditional industries, promote cultural innovation, and create a vibrant new society.
The new town area of Shuangfengsi Town is located in the center of Shuangfengsi Town, with its boundaries extending from Dianzi to Erdao River and from Gangouzi to Xiao Jing, covering a total area of 16.61 square kilometers, with a focus on the development of commerce and tourism.
Starting from Wulie River Bridge, passing through Cuiligou, and extending to Xiying, and further extending to Shangzhaizi and Xiazhaizi, the area totaling 30.36 square kilometers will be developed into a modern and diverse region.
"Shangbancheng" is an area located between Baihe Nancun, Dayingzhuang, and Xidamiao, covering a total area of 23.32 square kilometers, aiming to develop emerging industries.
Starting from the south of Yuanbao Mountain Park, extending to the northern mountains of Chenzhaizi and Pianqiaozi, and further extending eastward to the west of Changbei Gou, a total of 4.33 square kilometers of land will be used for urban development, with a focus on providing leisure and tourism services.
Comprehensive Transportation System Planning: 1. External Transportation Planning: The airport system consists of "two branches and five connections" and "two branches."The "five connections" refer to the cities of Weichang, Pingquan, Luanping, Kuancheng, and Xinglong, forming a complete civil airport network.
The goal of railway transportation development is to establish a comprehensive transportation network covering domestic high-speed highways, intercity railways, and ordinary railways.To achieve this, the Jin-Cheng Passenger Dedicated Line, Cheng-Tang, and Cheng-Zhang intercity railways will be constructed, and plans are underway for the Cheng-Qin, Xing-Ji, and Si-Duo ordinary railway lines, providing more possibilities for railway construction in China.
The "one ring, ten radiations, and double-linkage" is a complete transportation network composed of expressways.The "one ring" refers to a high-speed highway that connects cities, while the "ten radiations" are high-speed highway networks composed of provinces such as Beijing, Tianjin, Hebei, Shandong, Henan, Jiangsu, etc.The "double-linkage" is a famous expressway composed of Chicheng and Chitang.

Central City Transportation Planning:
To meet the demands of "fast, efficient, safe, and green" transportation more effectively, efforts will be focused on building a complex transportation network that caters to the needs of different areas and a road network that efficiently connects different regions.Green travel will be promoted, and diverse transportation services such as bicycles and walking that cater to different groups will be provided.
To improve the quality of life, the city's infrastructure will undergo substantial renovations, including the construction of a fourth-level road network, namely the "five verticals, six horizontals, and two rings" planned road network, and achieving a planned density of 8.97 kilometers per square kilometer by 2030.
Emphasis will be placed on the construction of a multi-level and efficient public transportation network, with rail transportation as the main support.It will integrate fast and convenient buses with other types of vehicles, increasing bus coverage within a 300-meter radius to 75% and within a 500meter radius to 95%.In most cases, the usage proportion of buses in the city should reach 35%.
To better meet the needs of residents, management of pedestrian traffic will be strengthened, connecting it with scenic spots, waterfronts, urban parks, and other public places, providing convenient experiences for residents in terms of travel, exercise, and rehabilitation.
To facilitate tourist travel, plans are in place to construct 324 pedestrian paths and 271 bicycle lanes.

Conclusion
With the rapid growth of the global economy and the swift push for urbanization, the improvement of urban transportation has become critically urgent, and its role has become crucially important.As a historical city, Chengde's historical development of transportation reflects the context and transformation of transportation and urban development in China.This paper explores the historical changes in Chengde's transportation and its impact on urban development, elucidating the evolutionary process of Chengde's transportation construction and highlighting the crucial role of transportation in urban development.In general, the development of transportation in ancient times was primarily to meet the political, religious, cultural, and military needs of Chengde.In modern times, transportation is more focused on facilitating the daily lives of citizens, promoting tourism development, and fostering economic growth.The transportation of a city is greatly influenced by current urban planning and functions, and it plays a vital role in ensuring the city's sustainable development.